- An element of thinking that developed within the academic literary theory and cultural studies.
- Focussing specifically on rhetoric, some, such as Walter Ong, have suggested that the audience is a construct made up by the rhetoric and the rhetorical situation that the text is addressing.
- Others, for example Ruth Mitchell and Mary Taylor have said that writers and speakers can target their communication to address a real audience.
- Some others like Ede and Lunsford attempt to combine these two approaches and create situations where an audience is "fictionalized," as Ong would say, but in recognition of some real attributes of the actual audience.
Effects Model
The Hypodermic Needle Model - The intended message is directly recieved and wholly accepted by the reciever.
Two-step flow - The people with most access to media, and highest media literacy explain and diffuse the content to others and is a modern version of the hypodermic needle model.
Uses and gratifications -People are not helpless victims of mass media, but use the media to get specific gratifications.
Reception theory - The meaning of a "text" is not inherent within the text itself, but the audience must elicit meaning based on their individual cultural background and life experiences
Obstinate audience theory - This theory assumes that there is a transactional communication between the audience and the media and the audience actively selects what messages to pay attention to. The Zimmerman-Bauer study found that the audience also participates in the communication by influencing the message.
Hypodermic Syringe Effect - The hypodermic needle model (also known as the hypodermic-syringe model) is a model of communications also referred to as the "magic bullet" perspective, or the transmission-belt model. Essentially, this model holds that an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver. The model is rooted in the 1930's behaviourism and is largely considered obsolete today.
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